Exam 4, Biology 301D, 7 December 2001                                        Printed name _____________________                            

1. (2 pts.) Social security number and name. Fill in the scantron form with the correct bubbles for your name and social security number. Put your name on this exam and turn it in when done, so that we can check your key code.

Key Code: Fill in (A) and (B) on scantron question 1. to indicate your exam code.

None, one, all, or any combination of individual answers apply to each question in this exam (except for "key code" questions). If any part of an option is incorrect, treat the entire option as incorrect.

Conflict

2. (5 pts) People often have goals other than finding the truth.  We listed material gain as one type of goal, and emotions as another.  Which of the following options were discussed or are in the book as biased because of goals stemming from emotional factors?

(A)      Douglas Bicklen’s refusal to accept evidence against the validity of facilitated communication (recall the video).

(B)       Parental refusal to accept evidence against the validity of facilitated communication.

(C)       Physician’s reactions to Semmelweis’s discovery of the cause (and cure) for high mortality rates in maternity wards

(D)       John Money’s unwillingness to admit that raising the “boy as a girl” was a mistake

3. (8 pts) Which of the following options describe(s) an outcome that stems from a "tragedy of the commons" conflict or correctly identifies a  tragedy of the commons pattern? None, one or many.

(A) The owner of a small plot of Northeast deciduous hardwood forest decides to cut down all the trees on his property and build a shopping mall.  Although he makes money every year by selling a few trees from his land (a log of prime veneer can generate ten thousand dollars), he has calculated that he can make even more money by building the mall, and as a consequence, the trees are all killed.

(B) Were compliance with tax laws voluntary, it is likely that many individuals would choose to pay no taxes but would nonetheless still use the schools and other social infrastructure bought by the taxes that others paid.  Ultimately, much of our social infrastructure would collapse.

(C) Our parks constitute one of our important public resources that has many direct and indirect benefits to our population.  However, many people choose not to use our parks, and as a consequence, this public resource benefits only a subset of the population.

(D) The boss of a company hires employees to do all the work.  To maximize profits, the boss pays the employees the lowest legal wage possible, even though it means that employees frequently move on to jobs in other companies.

(E) Many vaccinations are enforced by society.  Without mandatory vaccination, many individuals would either choose not to have their kids vaccinated or would just not bother (too much trouble), and our country would then have higher incidences of diseases.  The higher incidence of disease would adversely affect many people other than those who chose not to be vaccinated (or didn’t bother).

4. (5 pts.) Mark all of the following statements presented in lecture or book as being correct about vaccines or can be inferred to be correct from what you have learned.

(A) There are two benefits that people obtain from many vaccinations.  One is personal protection, i.e., the reduced risk of them getting the disease.  The second is that their immunity helps reduce the chance that others in the population will get the disease. 

(B) Neglecting the social costs of health care, the “tragedy of the commons” conflict does not apply to a vaccination that does not create a herd immunity, because such vaccines do not provide a group benefit.

(C) For many vaccines that are considered effective, there are some groups of people who are not well protected by the vaccine.  For example a vaccine may provide limited or no protection to babies, the elderly, and people with compromised immune systems.

(D) Mandatory vaccination is not required for influenza, yet herd immunity still applies to influenza (because it is a disease transmitted from person-to-person).  As suggested in the book, a possible reason that mandatory influenza vaccination is not required may be that the vaccine does not confer life-long immunity, hence it is simply not feasible to require vaccinations of each person every year.

 

5. (5 pts).  The money game.  Which of the following options about the "money game " demonstration are true?  (This game was the demo in which everyone indicated a $ amount on a slip of paper.  Note that the game this year was played somewhat differently than last year, so the answers on the practice exam need not apply to this year’s game.)

(A)  The theme illustrated was conflict between individual and group benefit. 

(B) Replication was an essential feature of the game, because there would have been no conflict if the game was played with just one individual.

(C) Random assignment of slips of paper to people would have made no difference to the design  because, even though all slips of paper were different, everyone was given the same choices in this game. 

(D) The demonstration specifically involved asking each person to assign a fraction of a total of money to themselves and the rest of the money to the group, to be divided among everyone.

(E) At least 5 people in class asked for the larger sum of money, and with this many (or more) large-$ requests, no one received any money.

 

Deliberate Bias

6. (4 pts)  At what stages can a study or the presentation of a study be deliberately biased?

(A)    Before the experiment is designed (e.g., in deciding what models to test)

(B)     In designing the study

(C)     After the data are gathered

(D)     After the data have been analyzed.


7. (7 pts) Mark all of the following statements that are correct about deliberate bias, as covered in lecture or the Notes (none, one, or many):

(A) One way to guard against bias is to require that protocols be published in advance of the study.  Advance publication eliminates the opportunity for bias to occur in the protocol but does not prevent bias from occurring in other aspects of the study.

(B) Much of scientific advancement comes from independent thinkers.  An idea that goes against the established views and models therefore warrants more consideration (e.g., should be considered more likely to be correct) than one that is consistent with established views and models.  In slang terminology, heresy is associated with correctness.

(C) To show that your opponent's model should be rejected, it is sufficient merely to identify at least one assumption of their model that is incorrect.

(D)  A major step in identifying deliberate bias is to identify conflicts of interest (is to anticipate vested interests).

(E)  In terms of avoiding bias, there is little to be gained by requiring that evaluation criteria be specified in advance of the study, because statistical tests have a rigorous, mathematical foundation and do not allow “fudge factors.”

(F) Publishing the raw data is one method of biasing data analysis.

8. (5 pts).  Consider the coinflip demonstration conducted during the lectures on deliberate bias.  What was the purpose of this demonstration or what parallels apply?

(A)   The demonstration illustrated how a drug company could bias the test of drug safety/efficacy by terminating trials early if the initial results look bad.

(B)    The demonstration illustrated how the choice of the null model is important to the conclusion reached.

(C)    The demonstration showed how changes in the amount of sampling error affects the opportunities for bias.

(D)    The demonstration was an illustration of a type of bias introduced into the design of an experiment.

(E)     There has been no coin flip demonstration in class since exam 3.

 

9 (5pts). (none, one, or many) To bias a scientific process by "controlling the null model" means that

(A) A different model is evaluated once the study is complete than was used to design the study.

(B) Randomization and blind are eliminated from the design to allow biased selection of the null model during the study.

(C) The study is conducted so that one model will be accepted until it is proven wrong.  This model is chosen by the individual that conducts the study according to his/her goals.  This choice precedes the experimental design and data analysis stages.

(D) Treatment groups (as opposed to control groups) are chosen to favor one particular model.

 

9-14. Mark the type of nonscientific argument (blatant bias) illustrated in each of the following examples. Base your answer on the information given in the question. None, one or more than one answer may apply.

(A) Claim that all alternatives have not been disproved

(D) Build causation from correlation

(B) Character assassination of opponent

(E) Refusal to admit error

(C) Draw on anecdotes or post hoc observations

(F) Either-or arguments

10. (4 pts) In the Prisoners of Silence video, Dr. Bicklen of Syracuse University stated that it doesn't matter how many times we fail in our attempts to demonstrate that facilitated communication works, we need to keep looking for those cases in which it does work. Dr. Bicklen's viewpoint, taken in the context of this video, is an example of which type of nonscientific argument ?

(A)                (B)                (C)                (D)                (E)                (F)

11. (3 pts) Employment at Home Depot  requires that the applicant pass a drug test.  After reading the employment conditions, Ralph Wrench submitted to a drug test and filled out the application form.  The test result was positive for at least one illegal substance, and he was therefore not hired.  Which type(s) of nonscientific argument underlie(s) Home Depot’s refusal to hire him?

                                                                                                (A)                (B)                (C)                (D)                (E)                (F)

12. (3 pts) A scientist testifies for the prosecution in a criminal case involving DNA typing.  His testimony concerns recent improvements in lab testing procedures that reduce the chance of human and technical error.  During cross examination, the defense attorney asks the scientist whether he has ever collaborated with anyone convicted of income tax evasion, and the scientist answers in the affirmative.  The defense attorney uses this fact to challenge the validity of the testimony about lab procedures.  Which type(s) of non-scientific argument apply to this challenge by the defense?

(A)                (B)                (C)                (D)                (E)                (F)

13. (4 pts) In defending their beliefs in the validity of facilitated communication, parents shown in the video recalled incidents in which their child responded in a way that, upon interpretation, suggested to them that facilitated communication worked. What type of nonscientific argument is indicated by this form of parental defense of their belief in FC?

(A)                (B)                (C)                (D)                (E)                (F)

14. (4 pts) In attempting to discredit the USDA’s insistence on the use of pesticides, a lawyer argues that pesticides are not effective because pest levels are actually higher in agricultural fields sprayed with pesticides than in fields not sprayed with pesticides. 

(A)                (B)                (C)                (D)                (E)                (F) 

15. (4 pts) As Governor, Ann Richards publicly expressed her attitude that UT students were not poor and thus were not in dire need of money.  She justified her position by commenting that the UT students she observed drove expensive cars.  (This is all true, by the way.)  If we assume that she did indeed observe students driving expensive cars but that, as today, these students are not representative of UT students, which type of nonscientific argument is illustrated by her reasoning?

                                                                                                (A)                (B)                (C)                (D)                (E)                (F)          

Drug Companies

16. (4 pts) Big themes. The class lectures on marketing strategies used by drug manufacturers most prominently illustrated which of the following course themes? (One or None)

(A)   the scientific method

(B)    Ideal data

(C)    Correlation does not imply causation

(D)    Impediments to scientific progress

17. (6 pts) The lecture and notes mentioned that pharmaceutical manufacturers use (or have used) which of the following methods to help bias doctors and otherwise enhance drug sales: (none, one, or many)

(A) Sponsored Continuing Medical Education classes, but invited as speakers mostly those researchers who advocate using drugs manufactured by the sponsoring company

(B) Funded independent research but prohibited publication of the results if the results looked unfavorable to company interests

(C) Given the doctors trinkets (such as cups, posters, pens and note pads) with the pharmaceutical company logo written on them

(D) Inflated the cost of developing new drugs to facilitate getting more government grants

(E) Published advertisements that look like real scientific articles

(F) Taken physicians to free lunches and given them free samples to encourage use of the company’s products.

 

Pesticides

18 (4 pts).   The lecture presented two statements about pesticide use and crop loss:

i) pesticide use has increased 10-fold in the last 30 years, while

ii) crop loss to insects has doubled during this time.

If we accept these two statements, which options are correct? (none, one, or many)

(A) We can conclude that pesticides have become less effective during the last 30 years

(B) Since pesticides have become less effective over time, we can also conclude that insects are become more resistant during this time.

(C) The effectiveness of pesticides cannot be evaluated from these statements without knowing the amount of crops (agricultural land) being treated

(D) These two statements describe a correlation, with no mention of causation.


19. (5 pts). In considering the utility of pesticides, which of the following statements are valid (as per the discussion in lecture or the book )? (none, one, many)

(A) An effective means of evaluating the ability of pesticides to ultimately reduce crop loss to pests is to (i) survey pest levels, (ii) spray the chemicals, and (iii) and then do an immediate follow-up survey of pest levels.  If pest levels decline immediately after spraying (because the insects have died from the spray), then there is no doubt that pesticides will reduce overall levels of crops lost to pests.

(B) In the 1990s, the number of pesticide-resistant insects was less than 50; this number is expected to increase in the future if we don’t use our pesticides carefully. 

(C) One drawback that has been suggested of pesticides is that they kill the natural control agents of pests; however, this is not a serious drawback, because if the natural control agents were effective in the first place, there would be no need for pesticides.

(E)     In the 1970s, cropland in the US used on the order of a couple pounds of pesticide per square mile.

 

 

20. (5 pts.) The pesticide treadmill model discussed in lecture contained which of the following parts? None, one or more than one answer may be correct.

(A) The early application of pesticides yields acceptable kills.

(B) Following initial pesticide use, pest numbers begin to increase. Higher pesticide doses are required. New pests appear.

(C) Beneficial insects (those which attack the pests) initially increase following pesticide application, because the pesticides weaken the pests and make them more vulnerable to the beneficial insects.

(D) With continued pesticide use, pest numbers and resistance become so high that use of the original pesticide is no longer feasible.

(E) Cessation of pesticide use is followed by return to original pest levels.

(F) As soils accumulate pesticide, fertilizer levels must be increased to offset the negative effects of soil pesticides on the crops.

(G) The pesticide treadmill is a description of the constant struggle faced by chemical companies in keeping pace with insect resistance, because each time a pest becomes resistant to a new pesticide, the company must start over in developing yet additional pesticides.

 


21. (6 pts) Design an experiment that would determine whether crop yields are higher with pesticides than without.  Which of the following options are correct? 

(A) Manipulation.  The simplest experiment would consist of merely surveying farms that use pesticides and comparing them to farms that don’t  The advantage of this kind of experiment is that it can be conducted by anyone, regardless of whether they own their own land or run their own farm.

(B)  Treatment: some fields should be treated with pesticide.  This treatment could consist of either a single application or multiple applications during the growing season.

(C) Controls: a good control is to use no pesticides on some fields.

(D) Replication: in order for replication to be present in the study, the treatment would need to involve multiple applications of pesticide; replication would not be present if only a single application was used.

(E) Random: the choice of which fields to spray should be made randomly, but if the study was started late in the growing season at the point that half the fields had already been sprayed, then it would be just as acceptable to skip the random assignment and assign to the treatment those fields that had already been sprayed, since the spraying probably wasn’t done in any particular order.

(F) Data:  the data could consist either of crop yield at the end of the season or just of how the crops were progressing once the spraying was complete, since once the spraying has been done, the effects of treatment are evident almost immediately.

Universities

22. (5 pts) Which of the following points were included in the lecture on conflict within universities?

(A)    Universities serve two main roles in the US:  education/training and basic research.  The conflicts within a university stem largely from this dual role.

(B)     The reward system in a university favors good research more than it favors good teaching; the lecture suggested that this likely to reverse in the future, with increased pressure from state legislatures to improve teaching.

(C)     Publications are one of the main currencies for establishing a research reputation; the quality of the journal in which a researcher publishes has a large impact on the researcher’s reputation.

(D)    Conflicts occur between professors and their university; this conflict can be considered a form of  “tragedy of the commons.

(E)     Conflicts also exist between different universities, between professors and granting agencies, and between professors and journals.