Exam
4, Biology 301D, 7 December 2001 Printed name
_____________________
1. (2 pts.) Social
security number and name. Fill in the scantron form with the correct
bubbles for your name and social security number. Put your name on this exam
and turn it in when done, so that we can check your key code.
Key Code:
Fill in (A) and (B) on scantron question 1. to indicate
your exam code.
None, one, all, or any combination of individual answers
apply to each question in this exam
(except for "key code" questions).
If any part of an option is incorrect, treat the entire option as incorrect.
Conflict
2. (5 pts) People often have goals
other than finding the truth. We listed
material gain as one type of goal, and emotions as another. Which of the following options were
discussed or are in the book as biased because of goals stemming
from emotional factors?
(A)
Douglas Bicklen’s refusal to accept evidence against the validity of
facilitated communication (recall the video).
(B)
Parental refusal to accept evidence against the validity of facilitated
communication.
(C)
Physician’s reactions to Semmelweis’s discovery of the cause (and cure)
for high mortality rates in maternity wards
(D)
John Money’s unwillingness to admit that raising the “boy as a girl” was
a mistake
3. (8 pts) Which of the following options describe(s) an outcome
that stems from a "tragedy of the commons" conflict or correctly
identifies a tragedy of the commons
pattern? None, one or many.
(A)
The owner of a small plot of Northeast deciduous hardwood forest decides to cut
down all the trees on his property and build a shopping mall. Although he makes money every year by
selling a few trees from his land (a log of prime veneer can generate ten
thousand dollars), he has calculated that he can make even more money by
building the mall, and as a consequence, the trees are all killed.
(B)
Were compliance with tax laws voluntary, it is likely that many individuals
would choose to pay no taxes but would nonetheless still use the schools and
other social infrastructure bought by the taxes that others paid. Ultimately, much of our social
infrastructure would collapse.
(C)
Our parks constitute one of our important public resources that has many direct
and indirect benefits to our population.
However, many people choose not to use our parks, and as a consequence,
this public resource benefits only a subset of the population.
(D)
The boss of a company hires employees to do all the work. To maximize profits, the boss pays the
employees the lowest legal wage possible, even though it means that employees
frequently move on to jobs in other companies.
(E)
Many vaccinations are enforced by society.
Without mandatory vaccination, many individuals would either choose not
to have their kids vaccinated or would just not bother (too much trouble), and
our country would then have higher incidences of diseases. The higher incidence of disease would
adversely affect many people other than those who chose not to be vaccinated
(or didn’t bother).
4. (5 pts.) Mark all of the following statements presented in
lecture or book as being correct about vaccines or can be inferred to be
correct from what you have learned.
(A)
There are two benefits that people obtain from many vaccinations. One is personal protection, i.e., the
reduced risk of them getting the disease.
The second is that their immunity helps reduce the chance that others in
the population will get the disease.
(B)
Neglecting the social costs of health care, the “tragedy of the commons”
conflict does not apply to a vaccination that does not create a herd immunity,
because such vaccines do not provide a group benefit.
(C)
For many vaccines that are considered effective, there are some groups of
people who are not well protected by the vaccine. For example a vaccine may provide limited or no protection to
babies, the elderly, and people with compromised immune systems.
(D)
Mandatory vaccination is not required for influenza, yet herd immunity still
applies to influenza (because it is a disease transmitted from
person-to-person). As suggested in the
book, a possible reason that mandatory influenza vaccination is not required
may be that the vaccine does not confer life-long immunity, hence it is simply
not feasible to require vaccinations of each person every year.
5. (5 pts). The money
game. Which of the following
options about the "money game " demonstration are true? (This game was the demo in which everyone
indicated a $ amount on a slip of paper.
Note that the game this year was played somewhat differently than last
year, so the answers on the practice exam need not apply to this year’s game.)
(A) The theme illustrated was conflict between
individual and group benefit.
(B)
Replication was an essential feature of the game, because there would have been
no conflict if the game was played with just one individual.
(C) Random assignment of slips of paper to people would have made no difference to the design because, even though all slips of paper were different, everyone was given the same choices in this game.
(D)
The demonstration specifically involved asking each person to assign a fraction
of a total of money to themselves and the rest of the money to the group, to be
divided among everyone.
(E)
At least 5 people in class asked for the larger sum of money, and with this
many (or more) large-$ requests, no one received any money.
Deliberate
Bias
6. (4 pts) At what
stages can a study or the presentation of a study be deliberately biased?
(A)
Before the experiment is designed (e.g., in deciding what models to test)
(B)
In designing the study
(C)
After the data are gathered
(D)
After the data have been analyzed.
7. (7 pts) Mark all of the following statements that are correct
about deliberate bias, as covered in lecture or the Notes (none, one, or many):
(A)
One way to guard against bias is to require that protocols be published in
advance of the study. Advance
publication eliminates the opportunity for bias to occur in the protocol but
does not prevent bias from occurring in other aspects of the study.
(B)
Much of scientific advancement comes from independent thinkers. An idea that goes against the established
views and models therefore warrants more consideration (e.g., should be
considered more likely to be correct) than one that is consistent with
established views and models. In slang
terminology, heresy is associated with correctness.
(C)
To show that your opponent's model should be rejected, it is sufficient merely
to identify at least one assumption of their model that is incorrect.
(D) A major step in identifying deliberate bias
is to identify conflicts of interest (is to anticipate vested interests).
(E) In terms of avoiding bias, there is little
to be gained by requiring that evaluation criteria be specified in advance of
the study, because statistical tests have a rigorous, mathematical foundation
and do not allow “fudge factors.”
(F)
Publishing the raw data is one method of biasing data analysis.
8.
(5 pts). Consider the coinflip demonstration conducted during the lectures
on deliberate bias. What was the
purpose of this demonstration or what parallels apply?
(A) The demonstration illustrated how a drug company could
bias the test of drug safety/efficacy by terminating trials early if the
initial results look bad.
(B) The demonstration illustrated how the choice of the
null model is important to the conclusion reached.
(C) The demonstration showed how changes in the amount of
sampling error affects the opportunities for bias.
(D) The demonstration was an illustration of a type of
bias introduced into the design of an experiment.
(E) There has been no coin flip demonstration in class
since exam 3.
9 (5pts). (none, one, or many) To bias a scientific process by
"controlling the null model" means that
(A)
A different model is evaluated once the study is complete than was used to
design the study.
(B)
Randomization and blind are eliminated from the design to allow biased
selection of the null model during the study.
(C)
The study is conducted so that one model will be accepted until it is proven
wrong. This model is chosen by the
individual that conducts the study according to his/her goals. This choice precedes the experimental design
and data analysis stages.
(D)
Treatment groups (as opposed to control groups) are chosen to favor one
particular model.
9-14. Mark the type of
nonscientific argument (blatant bias) illustrated in each of the following
examples. Base your answer on the information given in the question. None, one
or more than one answer may apply.
(A) Claim that all alternatives have not been
disproved |
(D) Build causation from
correlation |
(B) Character assassination
of opponent |
(E) Refusal to admit error |
(C) Draw on anecdotes or
post hoc observations |
(F) Either-or arguments |
10. (4 pts) In the Prisoners of Silence video, Dr. Bicklen of
Syracuse University stated that it doesn't matter how many times we fail in our
attempts to demonstrate that facilitated communication works, we need to keep
looking for those cases in which it does work. Dr. Bicklen's viewpoint, taken
in the context of this video, is an example of which type of nonscientific
argument ?
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F)
11. (3 pts) Employment at Home Depot requires that the applicant pass a drug test. After reading the employment conditions,
Ralph Wrench submitted to a drug test and filled out the application form. The test result was positive for at least
one illegal substance, and he was therefore not hired. Which type(s) of nonscientific argument
underlie(s) Home Depot’s refusal to hire him?
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F)
12. (3 pts) A scientist testifies for the prosecution in a
criminal case involving DNA typing. His
testimony concerns recent improvements in lab testing procedures that reduce
the chance of human and technical error.
During cross examination, the defense attorney asks the scientist
whether he has ever collaborated with anyone convicted of income tax evasion,
and the scientist answers in the affirmative.
The defense attorney uses this fact to challenge the validity of the
testimony about lab procedures. Which
type(s) of non-scientific argument apply to this challenge by the defense?
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F)
13. (4 pts) In defending their beliefs in the validity of
facilitated communication, parents shown in the video recalled incidents in
which their child responded in a way that, upon interpretation, suggested to
them that facilitated communication worked. What type of nonscientific argument
is indicated by this form of parental defense of their belief in FC?
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F)
14. (4 pts) In attempting to discredit the USDA’s insistence on the
use of pesticides, a lawyer argues that pesticides are not effective because
pest levels are actually higher in agricultural fields sprayed with
pesticides than in fields not sprayed with pesticides.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F)
15. (4 pts) As Governor, Ann Richards publicly expressed her
attitude that UT students were not poor and thus were not in dire need of
money. She justified her position by
commenting that the UT students she observed drove expensive cars. (This is all true, by the way.) If we assume that she did indeed observe
students driving expensive cars but that, as today, these students are not
representative of UT students, which type of nonscientific argument is
illustrated by her reasoning?
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F)
Drug
Companies
16. (4 pts) Big themes. The class lectures on
marketing strategies used by drug manufacturers most prominently illustrated
which of the following course themes? (One or None)
(A)
the scientific method
(B)
Ideal data
(C)
Correlation does not imply causation
(D)
Impediments to scientific progress
17. (6 pts) The lecture and notes mentioned that pharmaceutical
manufacturers use (or have used) which of the following methods to help bias
doctors and otherwise enhance drug sales: (none, one, or many)
(A)
Sponsored Continuing Medical Education classes, but invited as speakers mostly
those researchers who advocate using drugs manufactured by the sponsoring
company
(B)
Funded independent research but prohibited publication of the results if the
results looked unfavorable to company interests
(C)
Given the doctors trinkets (such as cups, posters, pens and note pads) with the
pharmaceutical company logo written on them
(D)
Inflated the cost of developing new drugs to facilitate getting more government
grants
(E)
Published advertisements that look like real scientific articles
(F)
Taken physicians to free lunches and given them free samples to encourage use
of the company’s products.
Pesticides
18 (4 pts). The lecture
presented two statements about pesticide use and crop loss:
i)
pesticide use has increased 10-fold in the last 30 years, while
ii)
crop loss to insects has doubled during this time.
If we accept these two
statements, which options are correct? (none, one, or many)
(A)
We can conclude that pesticides have become less effective during the last 30
years
(B)
Since pesticides have become less effective over time, we can also conclude
that insects are become more resistant during this time.
(C)
The effectiveness of pesticides cannot be evaluated from these statements
without knowing the amount of crops (agricultural land) being treated
(D)
These two statements describe a correlation, with no mention of causation.
19. (5 pts). In considering
the utility of pesticides, which of the following statements are valid (as per
the discussion in lecture or the book )? (none, one, many)
(A) An effective means of evaluating the ability of
pesticides to ultimately reduce crop loss to pests is to (i) survey pest
levels, (ii) spray the chemicals, and (iii) and then do an immediate follow-up
survey of pest levels. If pest levels
decline immediately after spraying (because the insects have died from the
spray), then there is no doubt that pesticides will reduce overall levels of
crops lost to pests.
(B) In the 1990s, the number of pesticide-resistant
insects was less than 50; this number is expected to increase in the future if
we don’t use our pesticides carefully.
(C) One drawback that has been suggested of pesticides
is that they kill the natural control agents of pests; however, this is not a
serious drawback, because if the natural control agents were effective in the
first place, there would be no need for pesticides.
(E) In the 1970s, cropland in the US used on the order of
a couple pounds of pesticide per square mile.
20. (5 pts.) The pesticide treadmill
model discussed in lecture contained which of the following parts? None, one or
more than one answer may be correct.
(A) The early application of pesticides yields acceptable kills.
(B) Following initial pesticide use, pest numbers begin to increase.
Higher pesticide doses are required. New pests appear.
(C) Beneficial insects (those which attack the pests) initially
increase following pesticide application, because the pesticides weaken the
pests and make them more vulnerable to the beneficial insects.
(D) With continued pesticide use, pest numbers and resistance become so
high that use of the original pesticide is no longer feasible.
(E) Cessation of pesticide use is followed by return to original pest
levels.
(F) As soils accumulate pesticide, fertilizer levels must be increased
to offset the negative effects of soil pesticides on the crops.
(G) The pesticide treadmill is a description of the constant struggle
faced by chemical companies in keeping pace with insect resistance, because
each time a pest becomes resistant to a new pesticide, the company must start
over in developing yet additional pesticides.
21. (6 pts) Design an experiment that would determine whether
crop yields are higher with pesticides than without. Which of the following options are correct?
(A) Manipulation. The
simplest experiment would consist of merely surveying farms that use pesticides
and comparing them to farms that don’t
The advantage of this kind of experiment is that it can be conducted by
anyone, regardless of whether they own their own land or run their own farm.
(B) Treatment: some
fields should be treated with pesticide.
This treatment could consist of either a single application or multiple
applications during the growing season.
(C) Controls: a good control is to use no pesticides on some
fields.
(D) Replication: in order for replication to be present in the
study, the treatment would need to involve multiple applications of pesticide;
replication would not be present if only a single application was used.
(E) Random: the choice of which fields to spray should be made
randomly, but if the study was started late in the growing season at the point
that half the fields had already been sprayed, then it would be just as
acceptable to skip the random assignment and assign to the treatment those
fields that had already been sprayed, since the spraying probably wasn’t done
in any particular order.
(F) Data: the data could
consist either of crop yield at the end of the season or just of how the crops
were progressing once the spraying was complete, since once the spraying has
been done, the effects of treatment are evident almost immediately.
22.
(5 pts) Which of the following points
were included in the lecture on conflict within universities?
(A)
Universities serve two
main roles in the US:
education/training and basic research.
The conflicts within a university stem largely from this dual role.
(B)
The reward system in a
university favors good research more than it favors good teaching; the lecture suggested
that this likely to reverse in the future, with increased pressure from state
legislatures to improve teaching.
(C)
Publications are one of
the main currencies for establishing a research reputation; the quality of the
journal in which a researcher publishes has a large impact on the researcher’s
reputation.
(D)
Conflicts occur between
professors and their university; this conflict can be considered a form
of “tragedy of the commons.”
(E)
Conflicts also exist
between different universities, between professors and granting agencies, and
between professors and journals.